Software Engineering Practical Exam — Complete Reference

1. COCOMO (Full Practical)

Question Types

Numerical (Effort, Duration, Team, Cost)
Java Program
Excel Sheet

Formulas (Write First)

E = a × (KLOC)^b          → Effort (Person-Months)
D = c × (E)^d             → Duration (Months)
P = E / D                 → Team Size (Persons)
Productivity = KLOC / E   → Productivity (KLOC per PM)
Cost = E × Cost_per_PM    → Total Cost (₹)

Constant Table

Mode	a	b	c	d
Organic	2.4	1.05	2.5	0.38
Semi	3.0	1.12	2.5	0.35
Embedded	3.6	1.20	2.5	0.32

How to pick mode:

Organic → Small team, familiar project, < 50 KLOC (e.g. payroll system)

Semi-Detached → Medium team, mixed experience, 50–300 KLOC (e.g. banking system)

Embedded → Tight constraints, real-time, > 300 KLOC (e.g. air traffic control)

Step-by-Step Solution (Numerical)

Step 1: Identify KLOC and Mode
Step 2: Pick constants (a, b, c, d)
Step 3: Calculate Effort
- First compute (KLOC)^b using calculator
- Multiply with a
Step 4: Calculate Duration
- Compute (Effort)^d
- Multiply with c
Step 5: Team Size
- Divide Effort / Duration
Step 6: Productivity
- Divide KLOC / Effort
Step 7: Cost (if given)
- Multiply Effort × Cost_per_PM

Worked Example

Q: A project has 32 KLOC, Organic mode. Cost per PM = ₹15,000. Find E, D, P, Productivity, Cost.

Step 1: KLOC = 32, Mode = Organic
Step 2: a=2.4, b=1.05, c=2.5, d=0.38

Step 3: E = 2.4 × (32)^1.05
         (32)^1.05 = 32 × 32^0.05 = 32 × 1.1892 ≈ 38.05
         E = 2.4 × 38.05 = 91.33 PM

Step 4: D = 2.5 × (91.33)^0.38
         (91.33)^0.38 ≈ 5.65
         D = 2.5 × 5.65 = 14.13 months

Step 5: P = 91.33 / 14.13 = 6.46 ≈ 7 persons

Step 6: Productivity = 32 / 91.33 = 0.35 KLOC/PM

Step 7: Cost = 91.33 × 15000 = ₹13,69,950

Excel (Full Step-by-Step — Do Exactly)

Step 1: Open Excel

Step 2: Create columns in row 1:

A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J
KLOC	a	b	c	d	Effort	Duration	Team	Productivity	Cost

Step 3: Enter data:

A2 → KLOC value (e.g. 32)
B2 → a (e.g. 2.4)
C2 → b (e.g. 1.05)
D2 → c (e.g. 2.5)
E2 → d (e.g. 0.38)

Step 4: Click F2 → type:

= B2 * (A2 ^ C2)

Step 5: Click G2 → type:

= D2 * (F2 ^ E2)

Step 6: Click H2 → type:

= F2 / G2

Step 7: Click I2 → type:

= A2 / F2

Step 8: Click J2 → type:

= F2 * 15000

Excel Tips:

Press Enter after each formula to confirm

Use Ctrl+S to save

If you see #VALUE! → check cell references

To format decimals → Right click → Format Cells → Number → 2 decimal places

To do multiple modes at once, fill rows 2, 3, 4 with Organic, Semi, Embedded constants and drag formulas down

Java Code (Full)

import java.util.*;

public class COCOMO {
    public static void main(String[] args){
        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);

        System.out.println("Enter type (1=Organic, 2=Semi, 3=Embedded):");
        int type = sc.nextInt();

        System.out.println("Enter KLOC:");
        double kloc = sc.nextDouble();

        System.out.println("Enter cost per PM:");
        double cost = sc.nextDouble();

        double a=0, b=0, c=2.5, d=0;

        if(type==1)      { a=2.4; b=1.05; d=0.38; }
        else if(type==2) { a=3.0; b=1.12; d=0.35; }
        else             { a=3.6; b=1.20; d=0.32; }

        double effort      = a * Math.pow(kloc, b);
        double duration    = c * Math.pow(effort, d);
        double team        = effort / duration;
        double productivity= kloc / effort;
        double totalCost   = effort * cost;

        System.out.printf("Effort:       %.2f PM%n", effort);
        System.out.printf("Duration:     %.2f months%n", duration);
        System.out.printf("Team Size:    %.2f persons%n", team);
        System.out.printf("Productivity: %.4f KLOC/PM%n", productivity);
        System.out.printf("Total Cost:   Rs %.2f%n", totalCost);
    }
}

Compile & Run:
javac COCOMO.java
java COCOMO

2. Function Point (FP — Full Practical)

Weight Table (MEMORIZE THIS)

Parameter	Low	Average	High
External Input (EI)	3	4	6
External Output (EO)	4	5	7
External Inquiry (EQ)	3	4	6
Internal Logical File (ILF)	7	10	15
External Interface File (EIF)	5	7	10

Default: If question says "Average complexity", use the Average column.

Step-by-Step

Step 1: Identify counts — EI, EO, EQ, ILF, EIF
Step 2: Choose weights (Default → Average column)
Step 3: Multiply each — EI × weight, EO × weight, ...
Step 4: Add all → UFP (Unadjusted Function Points)
Step 5: Find ΣFi (sum of 14 General System Characteristics)
- If not given → assume 42
- Each characteristic rated 0–5
- Total range: 0 to 70
Step 6: Compute VAF:
```
VAF = 0.65 + 0.01 × ΣFi
```
Step 7: Compute FP:
```
FP = UFP × VAF
```

Worked Example

Q: EI=10, EO=8, EQ=6, ILF=4, EIF=3. Average complexity. ΣFi = 42. Find FP.

Step 1: Using Average weights:
  EI  = 10 × 4  = 40
  EO  = 8  × 5  = 40
  EQ  = 6  × 4  = 24
  ILF = 4  × 10 = 40
  EIF = 3  × 7  = 21

Step 2: UFP = 40 + 40 + 24 + 40 + 21 = 165

Step 3: VAF = 0.65 + 0.01 × 42 = 0.65 + 0.42 = 1.07

Step 4: FP = 165 × 1.07 = 176.55

14 General System Characteristics (GSC)

If asked in viva — these are the 14 factors:

Data Communications
Distributed Data Processing
Performance
Heavily Used Configuration
Transaction Rate
Online Data Entry
End-User Efficiency
Online Update
Complex Processing
Reusability
Installation Ease
Operational Ease
Multiple Sites
Facilitate Change

Excel (Step-by-Step)

Step 1: Create columns:

A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N
EI	EO	EQ	ILF	EIF	w_EI	w_EO	w_EQ	w_ILF	w_EIF	UFP	ΣFi	VAF	FP

Step 2: Enter counts in row 2 (A2 to E2)

Step 3: Enter weights in F2 to J2 (e.g. 4, 5, 4, 10, 7 for average)

Step 4: UFP (K2):

= A2*F2 + B2*G2 + C2*H2 + D2*I2 + E2*J2

Step 5: ΣFi (L2) → enter 42 or given value

Step 6: VAF (M2):

= 0.65 + 0.01*L2

Step 7: FP (N2):

= K2 * M2

3. PERT (Full Practical)

Formulas

Te = (O + 4M + P) / 6          → Expected Time
σ  = (P - O) / 6               → Standard Deviation
V  = σ² = ((P - O) / 6)²      → Variance

Step-by-Step

Step 1: Identify O (Optimistic), M (Most Likely), P (Pessimistic)
Step 2: Multiply M by 4
Step 3: Add all → (O + 4M + P)
Step 4: Divide by 6 → Te
Step 5: Standard Deviation: σ = (P - O) / 6
Step 6: Variance: V = σ²

Worked Example

Q: O = 2, M = 5, P = 14. Find Te, σ, V.

Te = (2 + 4×5 + 14) / 6 = (2 + 20 + 14) / 6 = 36/6 = 6 weeks
σ  = (14 - 2) / 6 = 12/6 = 2
V  = 2² = 4

For multiple activities: Add all Te for critical path duration. Add all Variances (NOT σ).

Excel

Te:

=(A2 + 4*B2 + C2)/6

Standard Deviation:

=(C2-A2)/6

Variance:

=((C2-A2)/6)^2

Where A = O, B = M, C = P

4. CPM (Full Detailed)

Key Terms

Term	Full Form	Meaning
ES	Earliest Start	Earliest an activity can start
EF	Earliest Finish	ES + Duration
LS	Latest Start	Latest it can start without delay
LF	Latest Finish	LS + Duration
Float/Slack	—	LS - ES (or LF - EF)

Step-by-Step

Step 1: Draw network diagram (activities as arrows or nodes)
Step 2: Forward Pass (Left → Right):
- Start first activity ES = 0
- EF = ES + Duration
- If multiple predecessors → ES = MAX(all predecessor EF)
Step 3: Backward Pass (Right → Left):
- Last activity LF = Project EF
- LS = LF - Duration
- If multiple successors → LF = MIN(all successor LS)
Step 4: Float:
- Float = LS - ES (or LF - EF)
Step 5: Critical Path:
- Activities with Float = 0
- Longest path through the network

Worked Example

Q: Activities: A(3), B(4), C(2), D(5). A→C, A→D, B→D. Find Critical Path.

Forward Pass:
  A: ES=0, EF=3
  B: ES=0, EF=4
  C: ES=3 (after A), EF=5
  D: ES=max(3,4)=4, EF=9

Project Duration = 9

Backward Pass:
  D: LF=9, LS=4
  C: LF=9, LS=7
  B: LF=4, LS=0
  A: LF=min(7,4)=4, LS=1

Float:
  A: 1-0 = 1
  B: 0-0 = 0 ✓
  C: 7-3 = 4
  D: 4-4 = 0 ✓

Critical Path: B → D (duration = 9)

CPM Table Format (Use This in Exam)

Activity	Duration	ES	EF	LS	LF	Float	Critical?
A	3	0	3	1	4	1	No
B	4	0	4	0	4	0	✅ Yes
C	2	3	5	7	9	4	No
D	5	4	9	4	9	0	✅ Yes

5. Burndown Chart (Excel — Full Detailed)

Step-by-Step

Step 1: Create table:

Day	Planned (Remaining)	Actual (Remaining)
0	100	100
1	90	95
2	80	85
...	...	...

Step 2: Fill data (planned decreases linearly, actual varies)
Step 3: Select all cells including headers
Step 4: Click Insert → Line Chart → Line with Markers
Step 5: Ensure:
- Two lines visible (Planned = straight, Actual = zigzag)
- X-axis = Day/Sprint
- Y-axis = Remaining Work (Story Points / Hours)
Step 6: Add chart title: "Sprint Burndown Chart"
Step 7: Add axis labels and legend

Excel Shortcut: Select data → press Alt+F1 for instant chart

Analysis (Write This)

Observation	Meaning	Action
Actual > Planned	Behind schedule	Add resources or reduce scope
Actual < Planned	Ahead of schedule	Good progress
Flat line	No work done	Blocked or idle
End > 0	Incomplete sprint	Carry over to next sprint
Gap increasing	High risk	Immediate intervention needed
Actual touches 0	Sprint complete	All tasks done ✅

6. Gantt Chart (Excel — Full Detailed)

Step-by-Step

Step 1: Create table:

Task	Start Date	Duration (Days)
Requirements	01/01/2025	5
Design	06/01/2025	7
Coding	13/01/2025	10
Testing	23/01/2025	5
Deployment	28/01/2025	3

Step 2: Enter dates in proper format (dd/mm/yyyy)
Step 3: Select all data
Step 4: Insert → Bar Chart → Stacked Bar
Step 5: Right click chart → Select Data
Step 6: Remove wrong series (keep only Start Date & Duration)
Step 7: Add:
- Series 1: Start Date column
- Series 2: Duration column
Step 8: Set Axis Labels → Task names
Step 9: Click Start Date bars → Format Data Series → No Fill (makes them invisible)
Step 10: Click vertical axis → Format Axis → Categories in Reverse Order ✓
Step 11: Click horizontal axis → Format Axis → Minimum = first start date number

Key Fix: If dates show as numbers like 45000 → Right click axis → Format Axis → Number → Date

Troubleshoot

Problem	Cause	Fix
Numbers like 45000	Wrong date format	Format axis as Date
All bars start at 0	Start date not applied	Redo Select Data
Tasks in wrong order	Reverse not applied	Check "Categories in Reverse Order"
Bars not visible	Wrong series selected	Check series in Select Data

7. WBS (Word — Full Detailed)

Step-by-Step

Step 1: Open Word
Step 2: Click Insert → SmartArt
Step 3: Choose Hierarchy → Organization Chart
Step 4: Add levels:
- Level 1: Project Name (e.g. Hospital Management System)
- Level 2: Modules (e.g. Patient, Doctor, Billing, Admin)
- Level 3: Tasks (e.g. UI Design, Database, Testing)
Step 5: Use Tab to indent (demote) and Shift+Tab to promote
Step 6: Resize for clarity
Step 7: Change colors via SmartArt Design → Change Colors

Example WBS Structure

Hospital Management System
├── 1. Patient Module
│   ├── 1.1 Registration
│   ├── 1.2 Appointment Booking
│   └── 1.3 Medical History
├── 2. Doctor Module
│   ├── 2.1 Schedule Management
│   ├── 2.2 Patient Consultation
│   └── 2.3 Prescription
├── 3. Billing Module
│   ├── 3.1 Bill Generation
│   ├── 3.2 Insurance Processing
│   └── 3.3 Payment Gateway
└── 4. Admin Module
    ├── 4.1 User Management
    ├── 4.2 Reports
    └── 4.3 System Config

WBS Rule: Each item must be a deliverable, NOT an action. Say "Registration Form" not "Create Registration".

8. JUnit (Full Practical + Template)

Common Annotations

Annotation	Purpose
`@Test`	Marks a test method
`@BeforeEach`	Runs before each test (setup)
`@AfterEach`	Runs after each test (cleanup)
`@BeforeAll`	Runs once before all tests (static)
`@AfterAll`	Runs once after all tests (static)
`@DisplayName`	Custom test name
`@Disabled`	Skip a test

Common Assertions

assertEquals(expected, actual);           // Check equality
assertNotEquals(a, b);                    // Check not equal
assertTrue(condition);                    // Check true
assertFalse(condition);                   // Check false
assertNull(obj);                          // Check null
assertNotNull(obj);                       // Check not null
assertThrows(Exception.class, () -> {}); // Check exception thrown
assertArrayEquals(arr1, arr2);            // Check arrays equal

Template

import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;

public class TestClass {

    // Optional: setup before each test
    @BeforeEach
    void setup(){
        // initialize objects
    }

    @Test
    void testCase1(){
        assertEquals(expected, actual);
    }

    @Test
    void testCase2(){
        assertTrue(condition);
    }

    @Test
    void testException(){
        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> {
            // code that should throw
        });
    }
}

Practical Scenario (Hospital Bill)

class Hospital {
    double calculate(int days, double cost, double extra, boolean ins){
        double total = days * cost + extra;
        if(ins) total *= 0.8;
        return total;
    }
}

import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;

public class TestHospital {

    Hospital h;

    @BeforeEach
    void setup(){
        h = new Hospital();
    }

    @Test
    void normal(){
        assertEquals(7000, h.calculate(5, 1000, 2000, false));
    }

    @Test
    void insurance(){
        assertEquals(5600, h.calculate(5, 1000, 2000, true));
    }

    @Test
    void zeroDays(){
        assertEquals(2000, h.calculate(0, 1000, 2000, false));
    }

    @Test
    void negativeDays(){
        // Edge case: negative days should still compute
        assertEquals(-3000.0, h.calculate(-5, 1000, 2000, false));
    }

    @Test
    void zeroExtraCost(){
        assertEquals(5000, h.calculate(5, 1000, 0, false));
    }

    @Test
    void insuranceWithZeroDays(){
        assertEquals(1600, h.calculate(0, 1000, 2000, true));
    }
}

Run JUnit:

javac -cp junit-platform-console-standalone.jar:. *.java
java -cp junit-platform-console-standalone.jar:. org.junit.platform.console.ConsoleLauncher --scan-classpath

9. Pytest (Full Practical + Template)

Common Assertions & Decorators

assert x == y              # Equality
assert x != y              # Not equal
assert x > y               # Greater than
assert x is None           # Check None
assert x is not None       # Check not None
assert isinstance(x, int)  # Type check

# Exception testing
with pytest.raises(ValueError):
    function_that_raises()

# Parametrize (run same test with multiple inputs)
@pytest.mark.parametrize("input,expected", [(1,2), (3,4)])
def test_func(input, expected):
    assert func(input) == expected

# Fixtures (setup)
@pytest.fixture
def sample_data():
    return {"key": "value"}

def test_using_fixture(sample_data):
    assert sample_data["key"] == "value"

Template

import pytest

def test_case():
    assert function() == expected

def test_exception():
    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
        function_with_bad_input()

Practical Scenario (Ecommerce)

import pytest

def calculate(price, membership, seasonal):
    if price < 0:
        raise ValueError("Price cannot be negative")
    discount = {"regular": 0, "premium": 0.1, "vip": 0.2}
    if membership not in discount:
        raise ValueError("Invalid membership type")
    total = discount[membership] + seasonal
    if total > 0.5:
        total = 0.5  # Cap at 50%
    return price * (1 - total)

# --- TESTS ---

def test_normal():
    assert calculate(1000, "regular", 0) == 1000

def test_premium():
    assert calculate(1000, "premium", 0.1) == 800

def test_vip():
    assert calculate(1000, "vip", 0.1) == 700

def test_cap():
    """Discount capped at 50%"""
    assert calculate(1000, "vip", 0.4) == 500

def test_negative_price():
    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
        calculate(-1, "regular", 0)

def test_invalid_membership():
    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
        calculate(1000, "gold", 0)

def test_zero_price():
    assert calculate(0, "premium", 0.1) == 0

def test_high_seasonal():
    """Seasonal alone exceeds 50% → should cap"""
    assert calculate(1000, "regular", 0.6) == 500

Run Pytest:
python -m pytest filename.py -v
-v = verbose (shows each test name and PASS/FAIL)

Global System (Use Same Everywhere)

Write this once in paper:

System: Hospital Management System

Actors: Patient, Doctor, Admin

Core Flows:

Patient books appointment

Doctor consults and prescribes

System generates bill

Admin manages users and reports

Entities: Patient, Doctor, Appointment, Billing, Prescription

Use same entities everywhere. No variation.

UML & System Diagrams

1. Use Case Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

Actors (stick figures)
System boundary (rectangle)
Use cases (ovals inside boundary)
<<include>>, <<extend>> (dashed arrows)
Associations (solid lines)

How to Draw (Modelio Step-by-Step)

Open Modelio
Create new project → name it (e.g. HospitalSystem)
Right click → Create Diagram → UML → Use Case Diagram
Drag "Actor" from palette → place left side
Rename → Patient
Add second actor → Doctor
Add third actor → Admin
Drag "System" (rectangle boundary)
Name → Hospital Management System
Inside system:
- Drag Use Case → Book Appointment
- Drag → Pay Bill
- Drag → Consult Patient
- Drag → View Reports
Connect:
- Patient → Book Appointment (solid line)
- Patient → Pay Bill (solid line)
- Doctor → Consult Patient (solid line)
- Admin → View Reports (solid line)
Add include:
- Add use case → Check Availability
- Draw dashed arrow: Book Appointment → Check Availability
- Label: <<include>>
Add extend:
- Add → Apply Insurance
- Dashed arrow: Apply Insurance → Pay Bill
- Label: <<extend>>

Rules (Critical)

Actors always outside system boundary
Use cases always inside system boundary
<<include>> = mandatory sub-flow (always happens)
<<extend>> = optional sub-flow (may or may not happen)
Arrow direction:
- include → from main use case TO sub use case
- extend → from extending use case TO base use case
Actor-to-use-case = solid line (no arrow)
include/extend = dashed arrow with label

Common Errors

❌ Actor inside system → wrong
❌ Solid arrow instead of dashed for include/extend → wrong
❌ Writing include as normal text (must be <<include>>) → wrong
❌ Missing system boundary rectangle → marks cut
❌ No labels on dashed arrows → marks cut

Use Case Diagram

2. Class Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

Classes with attributes & methods
Relationships (association, aggregation, composition, inheritance)
Multiplicity
Visibility (+ public, - private, # protected)

How to Draw

Create → UML → Class Diagram
Add classes: Patient, Doctor, Appointment, Billing
Add attributes:
- Patient → -id: int, -name: String, -phone: String
- Doctor → -id: int, -specialization: String
- Appointment → -date: Date, -time: String, -status: String
- Billing → -amount: double, -paymentMode: String
Add methods (optional):
- Patient → +bookAppointment(), +payBill()
- Doctor → +consultPatient()
Add relationships:
- Patient → Appointment — Association, multiplicity: 1 to *
- Doctor → Appointment — Association, multiplicity: 1 to *
- Patient → Billing — Association, multiplicity: 1 to 1

Relationship Types

Type	Symbol	Meaning	Example
Association	Solid line	"uses" or "interacts"	Patient — Appointment
Aggregation	Empty diamond ◇	"has-a" (weak, can exist alone)	Hospital ◇— Doctor
Composition	Filled diamond ◆	"owns" (strong, can't exist alone)	Order ◆— OrderItem
Inheritance	Empty triangle △	"is-a"	Admin △— User

Rules

Class = rectangle with 3 sections (Name / Attributes / Methods)
Multiplicity must be written (1, *, 0..1, 1..*)
Association line is solid
Inheritance uses empty triangle arrow
Visibility: + public, - private, # protected

Common Errors

❌ No multiplicity → marks cut
❌ Writing methods unnecessarily when not asked → waste time
❌ Random arrows without labels → wrong
❌ Missing attribute types → marks cut

Class Diagram

3. Use Case Model (Theory + Diagram)

Just reuse Use Case diagram. Add 1–2 lines:

Shows system functionality from the user's perspective
Shows actor interaction with the system
Identifies system boundary — what's inside vs outside the system

4. Interaction Model

Two types: Sequence and Communication

4A. Sequence Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

Lifelines (vertical dashed lines with object name)
Messages (horizontal arrows with labels)
Order (top to bottom = time flow)
Return messages (dashed arrows going back)
Activation bars (optional thin rectangles)

How to Draw

Create → Sequence Diagram
Add lifelines: :Patient, :System, :Doctor
Draw messages (top to bottom):
- 1: bookAppointment() → Patient → System
- 2: checkAvailability() → System → Doctor
- 3: confirm() → Doctor → System (return)
- 4: confirmBooking() → System → Patient (return)

Message Types

Arrow	Meaning
Solid arrow →	Synchronous call
Dashed arrow ←	Return message
Half arrow →	Asynchronous message

Rules

Time flows top → bottom
Horizontal arrows = messages
Activation bars (thin rectangles) show when object is active
Return messages are dashed
Name format: :ClassName or objectName:ClassName

Common Errors

❌ Wrong direction arrows (return going forward)
❌ Random spacing (keep messages evenly spaced)
❌ Missing return messages
❌ No labels on arrows → marks cut

Sequence Diagram

4B. Communication Diagram

How to Draw

Create → Communication Diagram
Add objects: :Patient, :System, :Doctor
Connect with lines (associations)
Add numbered messages along the lines:
- 1: bookAppointment()
- 1.1: checkAvailability()
- 1.2: confirm()
- 2: generateBill()

Rules

Must use numbering (1, 1.1, 1.2, 2, 2.1…)
No timeline (unlike sequence diagram)
Shows the same info as sequence but focuses on object relationships
Numbers show order of messages

Common Errors

❌ Missing numbers → wrong (this is the KEY difference from sequence)
❌ Using timeline-style layout → wrong

Communication Diagram

5. ER Diagram (Pencil)

What Examiner Checks

Entities (rectangles)
Attributes (ovals)
Relationships (diamonds)
Cardinality (1:1, 1:N, M:N)
Primary key (underlined)

How to Draw (Pencil Tool)

Open Pencil application
Select → Shapes → ER Diagram
Add entities: Patient, Doctor, Appointment
Add attributes:
- Patient: patient_id (PK, underline), name, phone, address
- Doctor: doctor_id (PK, underline), name, specialization
- Appointment: appt_id (PK, underline), date, time, status
Add relationships (diamond shapes):
- Patient books Appointment
- Doctor attends Appointment
Add cardinality:
- Patient 1 — books — N Appointment
- Doctor 1 — attends — N Appointment

Notation Quick Reference

Shape	Represents
Rectangle	Entity
Oval	Attribute
Diamond	Relationship
Underlined text	Primary Key
Double oval	Multi-valued attribute
Dashed oval	Derived attribute
Double rectangle	Weak entity

Rules

Rectangle = entity
Oval = attribute
Diamond = relationship
Primary key underlined
Every entity must have a PK
Cardinality must be written on both sides

Common Errors

❌ No cardinality → wrong
❌ Mixing UML notation with ER notation → wrong
❌ Missing attributes → marks cut
❌ Primary key not underlined → marks cut
❌ No diamond for relationship → wrong

ER Diagram

6. DFD (Pencil)

Types: Context (Level 0) and Level 1

DFD Notation

Shape	Represents
Circle / Rounded rectangle	Process
Rectangle	External Entity
Open-ended rectangle	Data Store
Arrow	Data Flow

Context Diagram (Level 0) — Steps

Draw single process (circle): Hospital System
Add external entities (rectangles): Patient, Doctor, Admin
Connect with named arrows:
- Patient → Hospital System: "Appointment Request"
- Hospital System → Patient: "Appointment Confirmation"
- Doctor → Hospital System: "Availability Info"
- Hospital System → Doctor: "Patient Details"

Level 1 — Steps

Break the single process into sub-processes:
- 1.0 Appointment Process
- 2.0 Billing Process
- 3.0 Report Generation
Add data stores (open-ended rectangles):
- D1: Patient Database
- D2: Appointment Database
Connect with named data flow arrows

Rules

NO internal detail in context diagram (only 1 process)
Data flow arrows must be named (what data is flowing)
Processes must be numbered (1.0, 2.0, etc.)
Every process must have at least 1 input and 1 output
Data stores only appear in Level 1+

Common Errors

❌ Mixing ER and DFD notation → wrong
❌ No labels on arrows → marks cut heavily
❌ Data store in context diagram → wrong
❌ Unnamed processes → wrong
❌ Two external entities directly connected → wrong (must go through process)

DFD Level 0

DFD Level 1

7. State Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

Initial state (filled circle ●)
Final state (circle with dot ◉)
States (rounded rectangles)
Transitions (arrows with labels)
Guard conditions [condition] (optional)

How to Draw

Create → State Diagram
Add initial state (filled black circle)
Add states: Registered, Booked, Treated, Billed, Discharged
Connect sequentially with arrows
Add transition labels:
- Registered → Booked: bookAppointment()
- Booked → Treated: consultDoctor()
- Treated → Billed: generateBill()
- Billed → Discharged: makePayment()
Add final state (circle with dot)

Rules

Must have initial state (●) and final state (◉)
Use arrows for transitions
Label transitions with event/action
Guard conditions in square brackets: [isInsured]
States use rounded rectangles

Common Errors

❌ No initial/final state → marks cut
❌ Unlabeled transitions → marks cut
❌ Dead-end state (no outgoing transition except final) → wrong logic

State Diagram

8. Component Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

Components (rectangles with component icon)
Interfaces (lollipop ○ and socket ◠)
Dependencies (dashed arrows)

How to Draw

Add components:
- User Interface Module
- Appointment Module
- Billing Module
- Database Module
Connect with dependency arrows (dashed):
- UI → Appointment (uses)
- UI → Billing (uses)
- Appointment → Database (depends)
- Billing → Database (depends)
Optionally add provided/required interfaces (lollipop notation)

Rules

Component = rectangle with component icon (small rectangle with two tabs on left side)
Show dependency arrows (dashed, with <<use>> label if needed)
Group related components if needed

Component Diagram

9. Deployment Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

Nodes (3D boxes)
Components inside nodes
Communication paths (solid lines)
Protocols labeled

How to Draw

Add nodes (3D boxes):
- Client PC — contains: Web Browser
- Application Server — contains: Application Module, Business Logic
- Database Server — contains: MySQL Database
Connect nodes with communication paths:
- Client ↔ App Server: <<HTTP/HTTPS>>
- App Server ↔ DB Server: <<JDBC/TCP>>
Label protocols on the communication paths

Rules

Node = 3D box (cube shape)
Components go inside their nodes
Communication paths = solid lines between nodes
Label protocols (HTTP, TCP, JDBC, etc.)

Common Errors

❌ No protocol labels → marks cut
❌ Components floating outside nodes → wrong
❌ Missing communication paths → incomplete

Deployment Diagram

Quick Revision — Diagram Cheat Sheet

Diagram	Tool	Key Elements	Don't Forget
Use Case	Modelio	Actors, System, Use Cases	`<<include>>`, `<<extend>>` as dashed
Class	Modelio	Classes, Attributes, Relationships	Multiplicity on EVERY relationship
Sequence	Modelio	Lifelines, Messages (top→bottom)	Return messages (dashed)
Communication	Modelio	Objects, Numbered messages	Numbering is MANDATORY
ER	Pencil	Entity, Attribute, Relationship	Underline PK, write cardinality
DFD	Pencil	Process, External Entity, Data Store	Name ALL arrows
State	Modelio	States, Transitions	Initial ● and Final ◉ states
Component	Modelio	Components, Dependencies	Component icon (tabs)
Deployment	Modelio	Nodes (3D), Communication paths	Protocol labels (HTTP, TCP)

Viva Questions (Quick Answers)

Question	Answer
What is COCOMO?	Constructive Cost Model — estimates effort, duration, team size
Difference between Organic & Embedded?	Organic = simple, small team; Embedded = complex, tight constraints
What is Function Point?	Measures software size based on functionality, not lines of code
Difference between include and extend?	Include = mandatory; Extend = optional
What is Critical Path?	Longest path in network, determines minimum project duration
What is Float/Slack?	How much an activity can be delayed without delaying the project
Difference between Sequence and Communication diagram?	Sequence = time-ordered; Communication = shows object relationships with numbered messages
What is DFD Context diagram?	Shows entire system as single process with external entities
What is a Burndown chart?	Shows remaining work vs time in Agile sprints
What is WBS?	Work Breakdown Structure — hierarchical decomposition of project work
Difference between Aggregation and Composition?	Aggregation = weak "has-a" (part can exist alone); Composition = strong "owns" (part dies with whole)
What is PERT?	Program Evaluation Review Technique — uses 3 estimates (O, M, P) for expected time

Add Two Numbers

TheGreat13

Software Engineering Practical Exam — Complete Reference

1. COCOMO (Full Practical)

Question Types

Formulas (Write First)

Constant Table

Step-by-Step Solution (Numerical)

Worked Example

Excel (Full Step-by-Step — Do Exactly)

Java Code (Full)

2. Function Point (FP — Full Practical)

Weight Table (MEMORIZE THIS)

Step-by-Step

Worked Example

14 General System Characteristics (GSC)

Excel (Step-by-Step)

3. PERT (Full Practical)

Formulas

Step-by-Step

Worked Example

Excel

4. CPM (Full Detailed)

Key Terms

Step-by-Step

Worked Example

CPM Table Format (Use This in Exam)

5. Burndown Chart (Excel — Full Detailed)

Step-by-Step

Analysis (Write This)

6. Gantt Chart (Excel — Full Detailed)

Step-by-Step

Troubleshoot

7. WBS (Word — Full Detailed)

Step-by-Step

Example WBS Structure

8. JUnit (Full Practical + Template)

Common Annotations

Common Assertions

Template

Practical Scenario (Hospital Bill)

9. Pytest (Full Practical + Template)

Common Assertions & Decorators

Template

Practical Scenario (Ecommerce)

Global System (Use Same Everywhere)

UML & System Diagrams

1. Use Case Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

How to Draw (Modelio Step-by-Step)

Rules (Critical)

Common Errors

Use Case Diagram

2. Class Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

How to Draw

Relationship Types

Rules

Common Errors

Class Diagram

3. Use Case Model (Theory + Diagram)

4. Interaction Model

4A. Sequence Diagram (Modelio)

What Examiner Checks

How to Draw

Message Types

Rules

Common Errors

Sequence Diagram

4B. Communication Diagram

How to Draw

Rules

Common Errors

Communication Diagram

5. ER Diagram (Pencil)

What Examiner Checks

How to Draw (Pencil Tool)

Notation Quick Reference

Rules

Common Errors